Product Code Database
Papermaking is the process of manufacturing paper and cardboard, which are widely used for printing, writing, and packaging, and numerous other purposes. Today almost all paper is made using industrial machinery, while handmade paper survives as a specialized craft and a medium for paper art.
In papermaking, a dilute suspension consisting mostly of separate cellulose fibres in water is drained through a sieve-like screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is further removed from this sheet by pressing, sometimes aided by suction or vacuum, or heating. Once dry, a generally flat, uniform and strong sheet of paper is achieved.
Before the invention and current widespread adoption of automated machinery, all paper was made by hand, formed or laid one sheet at a time by specialized laborers. Even today those who make paper by hand use tools and technologies quite similar to those existing hundreds of years ago, as originally developed in China and other regions of Asia, or those further modified in Europe. Handmade paper is still appreciated for its distinctive uniqueness and the skilled craft involved in making each sheet, in contrast with the higher degree of uniformity and perfection at lower prices achieved among industrial products.
Hemp paper had been used in China for wrapping and padding since the eighth century BC.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 122. Paper with legible Chinese writings on it has been dated to 8 BC. The traditional inventor attribution is of Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 CE), said to have invented paper about 105 CE using mulberry and other along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.Papermaking. (2007). In: Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Paper used as a writing medium had become widespread by the 3rd centuryNeedham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 1. and, by the 6th century, toilet paper was starting to be used in China as well.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 123. During the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square tea bag to preserve the flavour of tea, while the later Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) was the first government to issue paper-printed money.
In the 8th century, papermaking spread to the Muslim world, where the process was refined, and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing. Production began in Samarkand, Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, Morocco, and then Muslim Spain. In Baghdad, papermaking was under the supervision of the Grand Vizier Ja'far ibn Yahya. Muslims invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper. This innovation helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry.Loveday, Helen. Islamic paper: a study of the ancient craft. Archetype Publications, 2001. The earliest use of Watermill in paper production, specifically the use of for preparing the pulp for papermaking, dates back to Samarkand in the 8th century. The earliest references to also come from the medieval Islamic world, where they were first noted in the 9th century by Arabic geographers in Damascus.
Traditional papermaking in Asia uses the inner bark fibers of plants. This fiber is soaked, cooked, rinsed and traditionally hand-beaten to form the paper pulp. The long fibers are layered to form strong, translucent sheets of paper. In Eastern Asia, three traditional fibers are abaca, kōzo and gampi. In the Himalayas, Lokta paper is made from the Daphne papyracea plant.* This paper is used for calligraphy, printing, book arts, and three-dimensional work, including origami.
In Europe, papermaking moulds using metallic wire were developed, and features like the watermark were well established by 1300 CE, while hemp and linen rags were the main source of pulp, cotton eventually taking over after Southern plantations made that product in large quantities. Papermaking was originally not popular in Europe due to not having many advantages over papyrus and parchment. It was not until the 15th century with the invention of the movable type of printing and its demand for paper that many paper mills entered production, and papermaking became an industry.Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Volume 5, p. 4.
Modern papermaking began in the early 19th century in Europe with the development of the Fourdrinier machine. This machine produces a continuous roll of paper rather than individual sheets. These machines are large. Some produce paper 150 meters in length and 10 meters wide. They can produce paper at a rate of 100 km/h. In 1844, Canadian Charles Fenerty and German Friedrich Gottlob Keller had invented the machine and associated process to make use of wood pulp in papermaking. Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. pp. 25–30 This innovation ended the nearly 2,000-year use of pulped rags and start a new era for the production of newsprint and eventually almost all paper was made out of pulped wood.
The method of manual papermaking changed very little over time, despite advances in technologies. The process of manufacturing handmade paper can be generalized into five steps:
/ref>
The wooden frame is called a "deckle". The deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavy, called "", one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury. The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, usually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the sideways wires together are called "chain lines". are created by weaving a design into the wires in the mould. Handmade paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines.
The International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA) is the world-leading association for handmade paper artists.
Handmade paper is also prepared in laboratories to study papermaking and in paper mills to check the quality of the production process. The "handsheets" made according to TAPPI Standard T 205 are circular sheets 15.9 cm (6.25 in) in diameter and are tested for paper characteristics such as brightness, strength and degree of sizing. Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper..
Another type of paper machine, invented by John Dickinson in 1809, makes use of a cylinder mould that rotates while partially immersed in a vat of dilute pulp. The pulp is picked up by the wire mesh and covers the mould as it rises out of the vat. A couch roller is pressed against the mould to smooth out the pulp, and picks the wet sheet off the mould. Paper Machine Clothing: Key to the Paper Making Process Sabit Adanur, Asten, CRC Press, 1997, pp. 120–136,
Papermaking continues to be of Paper pollution, due to its use of harsh chemicals, its need for large amounts of water, and the resulting contamination risks, as well as the carbon sequestration lost by deforestation caused by clearcutting the trees used as the primary source of wood pulp.
Some well-known and recognized papermakers have found fame in other fields, to the point that their papermaking background is almost forgotten. One of the most notable examples might be that of the first humans that achieved flight, the Montgolfier brothers, where many accounts barely mention the paper mill their family owned, although paper used in their balloons did play a relevant role in their success, as probably did their familiarity with this light and strong material.
Key inventors include James Whatman, Henry Fourdrinier, Heinrich Voelter and Carl Daniel Ekman, among others.
By the mid-19th century, making paper by hand was extinct in the United States. By 1912, fine book printer and publisher, Dard Hunter had reestablished the craft of fine hand paper making but by the 1930s the craft had lapsed in interest again. When artist Douglass Howell returned to New York City after serving in World War II, he established himself as a fine art Printmaking and discovered that art paper was in short supply. During the 1940s and 1950s, Howell started reading Hunter's books on paper making, as well as he learned about hand paper making history, conducted paper making research, and learned about printed books.
|
|
